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Python infers the type from the assigned value."}]}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"4. Python Data Structures"}]},{"type":"customImage","attrs":{"src":"https://67dc5f63b8b6a6f0ea39b99a.storage.fermion.app/public-cached/markdown-editor-file/file-unique-id/z0_e4wcfmmb4l6lpqswpqvuw4htd9k1kmqsd4obdpb2c5qhdhw2jkp3zwcoqr0uhzprvgkpwazq-pwrbsxuddporckvgvefjqquo","alt":null,"width":600,"height":335}},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Python offers four primary built-in data structures. Choosing the right one is a key programming skill."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"📋 List — Ordered & Mutable"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"A "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"list"},{"type":"text","text":" is an ordered, mutable (changeable) collection of items. Defined with square brackets "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"[]"},{"type":"text","text":"."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"my_list = [10, 12, 14, 20, 25]\nprint(my_list[0]) # 10 (zero-based indexing)\n\nmy_list[1] = 100 # Modify an element\nprint(my_list) # [10, 100, 14, 20, 25]\n\n# Lists can store mixed types\nmixed = [1, \"hello\", True, 3.14]\n"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Common operations:"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"my_list.append(50) # Add to end\nmy_list.remove(14) # Remove first occurrence of 14\nmy_list.sort() # Sort in place\nprint(len(my_list)) # Length of list\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"📦 Tuple — Ordered & Immutable"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"A "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"tuple"},{"type":"text","text":" is an ordered, immutable (unchangeable) collection. Defined with parentheses "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"()"},{"type":"text","text":"."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"my_tuple = (10, 12, 14, 20, 25)\nprint(my_tuple[2]) # 14\n\n# Attempting to modify raises TypeError:\n# my_tuple[1] = 100 ❌ TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment\n"}]},{"type":"blockquote","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"💡 Use tuples when the data should not change — for example, coordinates "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"(latitude, longitude)"},{"type":"text","text":" or RGB color values "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"(255, 0, 0)"},{"type":"text","text":"."}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"🔢 Set — Unordered & Unique"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"A "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"set"},{"type":"text","text":" is an unordered collection of distinct elements. Duplicates are automatically discarded."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"my_set = {10, 10, 12, 12, 20}\nprint(my_set) # {10, 12, 20} — duplicates removed\n\n# Empty set (NOT {}, which creates a dict):\nempty_set = set()\n\n# Set operations:\na = {1, 2, 3}\nb = {3, 4, 5}\nprint(a | b) # Union: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}\nprint(a & b) # Intersection: {3}\nprint(a - b) # Difference: {1, 2}\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"📖 Dictionary — Key-Value Mapping"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"A "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"dictionary"},{"type":"text","text":" maps unique keys to values, providing fast lookup by key. 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Indexing & Negative Indices"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Python uses "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"zero-based indexing"},{"type":"text","text":" — the first element is at index "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"0"},{"type":"text","text":"."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"javascript"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Index: 0 1 2 3 4\nList: [10, 12, 14, 20, 25]\nNeg Idx: -5 -4 -3 -2 -1\n"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"my_list = [10, 12, 14, 20, 25]\n\n# Positive indexing\nprint(my_list[0]) # 10 (first element)\nprint(my_list[2]) # 14\n\n# Negative indexing (count from the end)\nprint(my_list[-1]) # 25 (last element)\nprint(my_list[-3]) # 14 (third from last)\n\n# Slicing\nprint(my_list[1:4]) # [12, 14, 20] (index 1 to 3)\nprint(my_list[:3]) # [10, 12, 14] (first 3 elements)\nprint(my_list[::2]) # [10, 14, 25] (every other element)\n"}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"6. Input Handling & Type Conversion"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"input()"},{"type":"text","text":" function always returns a "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"string"},{"type":"text","text":", regardless of what the user types."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"name = input(\"Enter your name: \")\n# name is a str, even if the user types \"42\"\n"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"To use the input as a number, "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"explicitly convert"},{"type":"text","text":" it:"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Desired Type"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Conversion Function"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Integer"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"int()"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Float"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"float()"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# Reading and converting a salary\nsalary_str = input(\"Enter your salary: \") # \"50000\"\nsalary = int(salary_str) # 50000 (int)\n\n# Or in one line:\nage = int(input(\"Enter your age: \"))\n\n# Float conversion\nprice = float(input(\"Enter item price: \")) # e.g., 19.99\n"}]},{"type":"blockquote","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"⚠️ If the user enters non-numeric text and you call "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"int()"},{"type":"text","text":" on it, Python raises a "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"ValueError"},{"type":"text","text":". Always validate or use "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"try/except"},{"type":"text","text":" in production code."}]}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"7. String Formatting & Output"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Python offers multiple ways to format strings for output."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Concatenation with "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"print()"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"name = \"Rohit\"\nsalary = 50000\nprint(\"Hello\", name, \"your salary is\", salary)\n# Output: Hello Rohit your salary is 50000\n"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Commas in "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"print()"},{"type":"text","text":" insert a "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"space"},{"type":"text","text":" automatically."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"f-Strings (Recommended)"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"f-strings are the modern, most readable way to embed variables inside strings."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"name = \"Rohit\"\nsalary = 50000\nprint(f\"Hello {name}, your salary is {salary}\")\n# Output: Hello Rohit your salary is 50000\n\n# Expressions inside f-strings:\nprint(f\"Double salary: {salary * 2}\") # 100000\nprint(f\"Tax (10%): {salary * 0.10:.2f}\") # 5000.00\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":".format()"},{"type":"text","text":" Method"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"print(\"Hello {}, your salary is {}\".format(name, salary))\n"}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"8. Conditional Logic: "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"if"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"elif"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"else"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Conditional statements let your program make decisions."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Basic Structure"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"number = int(input(\"Enter a number: \"))\n\nif number > 0:\n print(\"Number is positive\")\nelif number == 0:\n print(\"Number is zero\")\nelse:\n print(\"Number is negative\")\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Nested Conditions — Login Example"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"email = input(\"Enter email: \")\npassword = input(\"Enter password: \")\n\nif email == \"kumar.s@learnbay.co\" and password == \"welcome123\":\n print(\"Welcome!\")\nelif email == \"kumar.s@learnbay.co\" and password != \"welcome123\":\n print(\"Incorrect password\")\nelse:\n print(\"Invalid credentials\")\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Finding the Smallest of Three Numbers"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"a = int(input(\"First number: \"))\nb = int(input(\"Second number: \"))\nc = int(input(\"Third number: \"))\n\nif a <= b and a <= c:\n smallest = a\nelif b <= a and b <= c:\n smallest = b\nelse:\n smallest = c\n\nprint(f\"The smallest number is {smallest}\")\n"}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"9. Importing Modules"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Python's standard library and third-party packages are brought in with "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"import"},{"type":"text","text":"."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"import math\nimport numpy as np\nimport pandas as pd\n"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Module"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Typical Use"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Common Functions"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"math"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Basic math operations"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"math.pi"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"math.sqrt()"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"math.factorial()"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"math.sin()"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"math.cos()"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"math.log()"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"numpy"},{"type":"text","text":" (as "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"np"},{"type":"text","text":")"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Efficient numerical arrays"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"np.array()"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"np.where()"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"np.mean()"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"np.median()"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"pandas"},{"type":"text","text":" (as "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"pd"},{"type":"text","text":")"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Tabular data manipulation"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"pd.read_csv()"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"df.head()"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"df.describe()"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"df.drop()"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"import math\n\nprint(math.pi) # 3.141592653589793\nprint(math.sqrt(144)) # 12.0\nprint(math.factorial(5)) # 120\nprint(math.log(100, 10)) # 2.0\n"}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"10. NumPy — Numerical Computing"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null}},{"type":"customImage","attrs":{"src":"https://numpy.org/doc/stable/_images/np_array_dataones.png","alt":"NumPy Arrays","width":600,"height":126}},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"What is NumPy?"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"NumPy"},{"type":"text","text":" (Numerical Python) is the foundational library for numerical computing in Python. It provides:"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"ndarray"},{"type":"text","text":" — a fast, memory-efficient multi-dimensional array"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Vectorized operations (no explicit loops needed)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"A large collection of mathematical functions"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Why use NumPy over plain lists?"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# Python list — concatenates (wrong for math!)\nlist_a = [1, 2, 3]\nlist_b = [4, 5, 6]\nprint(list_a + list_b) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] ← concatenation!\n\n# NumPy — element-wise arithmetic\nimport numpy as np\narr_a = np.array([1, 2, 3])\narr_b = np.array([4, 5, 6])\nprint(arr_a + arr_b) # [5 7 9] ← addition!\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Creating NumPy Arrays"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"import numpy as np\n\n# From a Python list\nmy_list = [10, 12, 14, 20]\narr = np.array(my_list)\nprint(arr) # [10 12 14 20]\nprint(arr.dtype) # int64\nprint(arr.shape) # (4,)\n\n# Element-wise operations (broadcasting)\nprint(arr * 2) # [20 24 28 40]\nprint(arr + 5) # [15 17 19 25]\nprint(arr ** 2) # [100 144 196 400]\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Multi-Dimensional Arrays"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# 2D array (matrix)\nmatrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3],\n [4, 5, 6]])\nprint(matrix.shape) # (2, 3) → 2 rows, 3 columns\nprint(matrix[0, 1]) # 2 (row 0, col 1)\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Statistical Functions"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"data = np.array([15, 22, 8, 30, 17, 22, 14])\n\nprint(np.mean(data)) # 18.28...\nprint(np.median(data)) # 17.0\nprint(np.std(data)) # Standard deviation\nprint(np.min(data)) # 8\nprint(np.max(data)) # 30\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"np.where()"},{"type":"text","text":" — Conditional Element Selection"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"np.where"},{"type":"text","text":" is like an element-wise "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"if/else"},{"type":"text","text":", invaluable for data cleaning."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"age_array = np.array([0.5, 25, 0.2, 30, 0.9, 18])\n\n# Replace ages less than 1 (likely data errors) with 13\nclean_age = np.where(age_array < 1, 13, age_array)\nprint(clean_age) # [13. 25. 13. 30. 13. 18.]\n"}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"11. pandas — Data Manipulation"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null}},{"type":"customImage","attrs":{"src":"https://pandas.pydata.org/docs/_images/02_io_readwrite.svg","alt":"pandas DataFrame","width":600,"height":163}},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"What is pandas?"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"pandas"},{"type":"text","text":" is Python's primary library for tabular data. It introduces two key structures:"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Series"},{"type":"text","text":" — a one-dimensional labeled array"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"DataFrame"},{"type":"text","text":" — a two-dimensional labeled table (like a spreadsheet)"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Reading Data"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"pandas can read many file formats:"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Format"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"pandas Function"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"CSV"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"pd.read_csv()"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Text (delimited)"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"pd.read_table()"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"JSON"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"pd.read_json()"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"HTML"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"pd.read_html()"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"XML"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"pd.read_xml()"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Excel"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"pd.read_excel()"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"import pandas as pd\nimport os\n\n# Check current working directory\nprint(os.getcwd())\n\n# Read a CSV file (forward slashes work on all platforms)\ndf = pd.read_csv(\"titanic.csv\")\n"}]},{"type":"blockquote","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"💡 "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Windows path tip:"},{"type":"text","text":" Replace backslashes "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"\\"},{"type":"text","text":" with forward slashes "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"/"},{"type":"text","text":" or double backslashes "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"\\\\"},{"type":"text","text":" to avoid escape-character errors."}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Exploring a DataFrame"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"df.head() # First 5 rows (default)\ndf.head(10) # First 10 rows\ndf.tail() # Last 5 rows\ndf.shape # (rows, columns) → e.g., (891, 12)\ndf.columns # Column names\ndf.dtypes # Data type of each column\ndf.describe() # Statistical summary of numeric columns\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Missing Data Detection & Treatment"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# Count missing values per column\nmissing_counts = df.isnull().sum()\nprint(missing_counts)\n\n# Fill missing numeric values with the median (robust to outliers)\ndf['Age'] = df['Age'].fillna(df['Age'].median())\n\n# Fill missing categorical values with the mode (most frequent)\ndf['Embarked'] = df['Embarked'].fillna(df['Embarked'].mode()[0])\n"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Why median for numeric, mode for categorical?"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Median is not skewed by extreme outliers (e.g., a few very old passengers won't distort the typical age)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Mode represents the most common category, preserving the distribution for categorical data."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Dropping Unnecessary Columns"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# Drop columns that don't contribute meaningful signal\ndf = df.drop(columns=['PassengerId', 'Name', 'Ticket'], axis=1)\n\n# Verify removal\nprint(df.head())\nprint(df.shape)\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Selecting & Filtering Data"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# Select a single column (Series)\nages = df['Age']\n\n# Select multiple columns (DataFrame)\nsubset = df[['Age', 'Fare', 'Survived']]\n\n# Filter rows where Age > 30\nadults = df[df['Age'] > 30]\n\n# Multiple conditions (use & and |)\nsurvivors_over30 = df[(df['Age'] > 30) & (df['Survived'] == 1)]\n"}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"12. Loop Constructs"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"⏳ While Loop"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"A "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"while loop"},{"type":"text","text":" executes its body as long as the condition remains "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"True"},{"type":"text","text":"."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"i = 1\nwhile i < 20:\n print(i * 10) # prints 10, 20, 30, ... 190\n i += 1 # i = i + 1\n"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Assignment operators in loops:"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Operator"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Meaning"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"+="}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"x = x + value"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"-="}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"x = x - value"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"*="}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"x = x * value"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"While-else pattern:"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"x = 1\nwhile x < 5:\n print(x)\n x += 1\nelse:\n print(\"limit crossed\")\n# Output: 1 2 3 4 limit crossed\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"🔁 For Loop"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Python's "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"for"},{"type":"text","text":" loop iterates over any "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"iterable"},{"type":"text","text":" (list, tuple, range, array, etc.)."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"range()"},{"type":"text","text":" Parameters"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"javascript"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"range(start, stop, step)\n"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"start"},{"type":"text","text":" — inclusive first value (default "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"0"},{"type":"text","text":")"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"stop"},{"type":"text","text":" — "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"exclusive"},{"type":"text","text":" end value (sequence stops before this)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"step"},{"type":"text","text":" — increment/decrement (default "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"1"},{"type":"text","text":")"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Counting Up"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"for i in range(1, 6): # 1 to 5 (6 is excluded)\n print(i)\n# Output: 1 2 3 4 5\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Counting Down"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"for i in range(10, 0, -1): # 10 to 1 (0 is excluded)\n print(i)\n# Output: 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Loop-Driven Calculation — Population Reduction Example"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"population = 10000\n\nfor _ in range(10, 0, -1):\n population = population * 0.9 # reduce by 10% each iteration\n print(round(population, 2))\n\n# Output:\n# 9000.0\n# 8100.0\n# 7290.0\n# ...\n# 3486.78\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Iterating Over a List"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"fruits = [\"apple\", \"banana\", \"cherry\"]\nfor fruit in fruits:\n print(f\"I like {fruit}\")\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Loops with Conditionals"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# Sum only even numbers from 1 to 20\ntotal = 0\nfor n in range(1, 21):\n if n % 2 == 0:\n total += n\nprint(f\"Sum of evens: {total}\") # 110\n"}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"13. Defining Functions with "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"def"}]},{"type":"customImage","attrs":{"src":"https://67dc5f63b8b6a6f0ea39b99a.storage.fermion.app/public-cached/markdown-editor-file/file-unique-id/ufq1duezoz6ou6atnwndrlptx4xit3aakiikuy9b7etxmzatunpdzhh44ow1zf_a3tyvhopxdqkc59g-cyfbg_jytswpcwyejekf","alt":null,"width":600,"height":335}},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Basic Syntax"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"def function_name(parameter1, parameter2):\n # function body\n return result\n"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"def"},{"type":"text","text":" creates a named function that can accept parameters, execute statements, and optionally return a value."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Simple Addition Function"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"def add(a, b):\n return a + b\n\nresult = add(10, 20)\nprint(result) # 30\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Even-Odd Checker"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"def check_even(num):\n if isinstance(num, int):\n if num % 2 == 0:\n return \"Number is even\"\n else:\n return \"Number is odd\"\n else:\n return \"Please enter an integer value\"\n\nprint(check_even(10)) # Number is even\nprint(check_even(7)) # Number is odd\nprint(check_even(\"abc\")) # Please enter an integer value\n"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"isinstance(num, int)"},{"type":"text","text":" validates the type before performing arithmetic."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The function returns a descriptive string covering all cases."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Functions with Default Parameters"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"def greet(name, greeting=\"Hello\"):\n return f\"{greeting}, {name}!\"\n\nprint(greet(\"Rohit\")) # Hello, Rohit!\nprint(greet(\"Rohit\", \"Hi\")) # Hi, Rohit!\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Functions Returning Multiple Values"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"def min_max(numbers):\n return min(numbers), max(numbers)\n\nlow, high = min_max([3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2])\nprint(f\"Min: {low}, Max: {high}\") # Min: 1, Max: 9\n"}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"14. Lambda (Anonymous) Functions"}]},{"type":"customImage","attrs":{"src":"https://67dc5f63b8b6a6f0ea39b99a.storage.fermion.app/public-cached/markdown-editor-file/file-unique-id/gnaskret9wi0lqmgz9as4gpnrmjvzozib_0vy5cd8zvdr2lqmq3nelqtjdcbgvrmm8--sumfhiah3lj4dceritogp3i-cj6ohcip","alt":null,"width":600,"height":335}},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"What is a Lambda?"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"A "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"lambda function"},{"type":"text","text":" is a small, unnamed function expressed in a single line."}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Syntax:"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"javascript"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"lambda parameters: expression\n"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Four required elements:"}]},{"type":"orderedList","attrs":{"start":1,"type":null},"content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The keyword "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"lambda"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"One or more parameters"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"A colon "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":":"},{"type":"text","text":" separating parameters from the expression"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The expression whose result is automatically returned"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Examples"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# Square a number\nsquare = lambda x: x ** 2\nprint(square(9)) # 81\nprint(square(99)) # 9801\n\n# Sum of two numbers\nadd = lambda a, b: a + b\nprint(add(4, 5)) # 9\n\n# Classify a number\nclassify = lambda n: \"even\" if n % 2 == 0 else \"odd\"\nprint(classify(7)) # odd\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Lambdas with "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"map()"},{"type":"text","text":" and "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"filter()"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]\n\n# map() — apply a function to every element\nsquared = list(map(lambda x: x ** 2, numbers))\nprint(squared) # [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64]\n\n# filter() — keep elements where function returns True\nevens = list(filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, numbers))\nprint(evens) # [2, 4, 6, 8]\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"def"},{"type":"text","text":" vs "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"lambda"},{"type":"text","text":" — When to Use Which"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Aspect"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"def"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"lambda"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Lines of code"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Usually ≥ 2"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Single line"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Readability"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Clear for multi-step logic"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Best for simple expressions"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Naming"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Must provide a name"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Can be assigned or used inline"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Complexity"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Supports multiple statements, loops, etc."}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Limited to "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"one expression only"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"blockquote","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"💡 "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Rule of thumb:"},{"type":"text","text":" If your function fits in one expression and won't be reused elsewhere, "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"lambda"},{"type":"text","text":" is fine. For anything more complex, use "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"def"},{"type":"text","text":" for readability."}]}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"15. Debugging & Error Handling"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Reading Tracebacks"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"When Python encounters a problem, it raises an "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"exception"},{"type":"text","text":" and prints a "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"traceback"},{"type":"text","text":" — a reverse-order log of where the error occurred."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# Example: Trying to modify a tuple\nmy_tuple = (10, 12, 14)\nmy_tuple[1] = 100\n# TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment\n"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The traceback tells you:"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"File name and line number"},{"type":"text","text":" where the error occurred"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Type of exception"},{"type":"text","text":" (e.g., "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"TypeError"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"ValueError"},{"type":"text","text":", "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"NameError"},{"type":"text","text":")"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Description"},{"type":"text","text":" of what went wrong"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Common Exceptions"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Exception"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cause"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"TypeError"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Wrong type for an operation (e.g., modifying a tuple)"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"ValueError"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Right type, wrong value (e.g., "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"int(\"abc\")"},{"type":"text","text":")"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"NameError"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Variable used before assignment, or typo"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"IndexError"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Accessing an index that doesn't exist"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"KeyError"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Accessing a dict key that doesn't exist"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"ZeroDivisionError"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Division by zero"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"try"},{"type":"text","text":" / "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"except"},{"type":"text","text":" — Graceful Error Handling"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"try:\n age = int(input(\"Enter your age: \"))\n print(f\"Next year you'll be {age + 1}\")\nexcept ValueError:\n print(\"Please enter a valid integer!\")\nexcept Exception as e:\n print(f\"An unexpected error occurred: {e}\")\n"}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"16. Memory & Object Identity"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Every object in Python is stored at a unique memory location. Python provides the built-in "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"code"}],"text":"id()"},{"type":"text","text":" function to retrieve this address."}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"x = 10\ny = 10\nprint(id(x), id(y)) # Same id! (Python caches small integers)\n\nz = [1, 2, 3]\nw = [1, 2, 3]\nprint(id(z), id(w)) # Different ids! (Two separate list objects)\n"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Key Behaviors"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# Mutating a list does NOT change its id\nz = [1, 2, 3]\noriginal_id = id(z)\nz.append(4)\nprint(id(z) == original_id) # True — same object, mutated in place\n\n# Reassigning a variable DOES change its id\nx = 10\nprint(id(x)) # some id\nx = 20\nprint(id(x)) # different id — x now points to a new object\n"}]},{"type":"blockquote","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Unlike Java"},{"type":"text","text":", Python manages memory automatically — you don't need to explicitly allocate or deallocate memory. However, understanding object identity helps avoid subtle bugs, especially when passing mutable objects (lists, dicts) to functions."}]}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"🎯 Quick Reference Summary"}]},{"type":"codeBlock","attrs":{"language":"python"},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"# ── Data Types ──────────────────────────────────────\nint_val = 42\nfloat_val = 3.14\nstr_val = \"Python\"\nbool_val = True\n\n# ── Data Structures ─────────────────────────────────\nmy_list = [1, 2, 3] # mutable\nmy_tuple = (1, 2, 3) # immutable\nmy_set = {1, 2, 3} # unique\nmy_dict = {\"a\": 1, \"b\": 2} # key-value\n\n# ── Input / Output ───────────────────────────────────\nname = input(\"Name: \")\nprint(f\"Hello, {name}!\")\n\n# ── Control Flow ─────────────────────────────────────\nif x > 0:\n print(\"positive\")\nelif x == 0:\n print(\"zero\")\nelse:\n print(\"negative\")\n\n# ── Loops ────────────────────────────────────────────\nfor i in range(5):\n print(i)\n\nwhile condition:\n # do something\n pass\n\n# ── Functions ────────────────────────────────────────\ndef greet(name):\n return f\"Hello, {name}!\"\n\nsquare = lambda x: x ** 2\n\n# ── NumPy ────────────────────────────────────────────\nimport numpy as np\narr = np.array([1, 2, 3])\narr * 2 # [2, 4, 6]\nnp.where(arr > 1, arr, 0) # [0, 2, 3]\n\n# ── pandas ───────────────────────────────────────────\nimport pandas as pd\ndf = pd.read_csv(\"data.csv\")\ndf.head()\ndf['col'].fillna(df['col'].median())\ndf.drop(columns=['col_to_remove'])\n"}]},{"type":"horizontalRule"},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"italic"}],"text":"This blog covers the complete Python programming foundation needed to begin your data science journey — from setting up your environment to writing reusable functions and manipulating real datasets with NumPy and pandas."}]}]}